|
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
Water - H20 refers to the 2
Hydrogen and 1 Oxygen molecule's liquid form or state or fluid that the
loose molecules and suspended particles can freely form a distinct
volume and surfaces at the boundaries of its bulk material. A liquid is one of
the principal states of matter typically contained in a container or
vessel, where the top surface is a free (floating - freely) conforming
surface. High and low temperatures cause water to change states with a
solid state below freezing point 32F/0C, ice and a gaseous state, water
vapor or steam above boiling point,212F 100C. About
70% of the Earth's surface, with 1.6% of water below ground in aquifers
and 0.001% is in the air as vapor, clouds (formed of solid and liquid water
particles suspended in air), and precipitation or rain, mist or hale.
pH is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. Aqueous solutions at 25 °C with a pH less than 7 are considered acidic, while those with a pH greater than 7 are considered basic (alkaline). pH values in water are commonly in the range 0-14, though more extreme values, even negative values, are possible. When a pH level is 7.0, it is defined as 'neutral' at 25 °C because at this pH the concentration of H3O+ equals the concentration of OH− in pure water. Acid (HA) a chemical compound when dissolved in water, gives a solution with a hydrogen ion activity greater than in pure water, i.e. a pH less than 7.0. Acid are categorized as: Weak acids, Lewis acids, Mineral acids, Organic acids , Strong acids, Superacids. Strong and many concentrated acids are corrosive and dangerous to humans or animals, causing severe burns upon contact. Examples of simple acid are Citric acid and Hydrochloric acid. General properties include they will react with metals to produce a metal salt and hydrogen or with metal carbonates to produce water, CO2 and a salt. Acids will react with a base to produce a salt and water or with a metal oxide to produce water and a salt. An acid will conduct electricity, depending on the degree of dissociation. Base
Mineral a naturally occurring substance formed through geological processes with a highly ordered atomic structure with characteristic chemical composition, and specific physical properties. A rock is an aggregate of minerals. Minerals range in composition from pure elements and simple salts to very complex silicates with thousands of known forms. Silicate is used to denote types of rock that consist predominantly of silicate minerals. Such rocks include a wide range of igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary types Igneous rock is formed
by solidification of cooled magma (molten rock), with or without
crystallization, either below the surface as intrusive (plutonic) rocks
or on the surface as extrusive (volcanic) rocks.
Metamorphic rock makes up a large part of the Earth's crust in a process called metamorphism, where preexisting (protolith) sedimentary, igneous or other metamorphic rock by the intrusion of hot molten rock called magma from the Earth's interior. The rock is subjected to extreme heat and pressure from the above rock layers and tectonic processes such as continental collisions causing significant physical and/or chemical change. Metamorphic rock is classified by texture chemical and mineral composition and/or metamorphic facies, that are typical for a certain field in pressure-temperature. Sedimentary rock is rock formed from sediments covering 75% of the Earth's land area including: chalk, limestone, dolomite, sandstone, conglomerate and shale. Salt Salt is a chemical substance formed from the neutralisation reaction of acids and bases. Salts are ionic compounds composed of cations (positively charged ions) and anions (negative ions) or electrically neutral (without a net charge). Salts that produce hydroxide ions when dissolved in water are basic salts and salts that produce hydronium ions in water are acid salts. Neutral salts are those that are neither acid nor basic salts. Zwitterions contain an anionic center and a cationic center in the same molecule but are not considered to be salts. Examples include amino acids, many metabolites, peptides and proteins. Dissolved in water, they are called electrolytes, able to conduct electricity. Wax Wax is a natural secretion of plants or animals, including bees wax, carnauba (a plant epicuticular wax) and paraffin (a petroleum wax). Waxes are also artificially produced by purification from natural petroleum or completely synthetic and vary in states based on the environmental conditions. Waxes typically move from solid to liquid at relatively low temperatures, above 90F - 100F degrees. Clay
Rubber Natural rubber occurs as a milky colloidal suspension, or latex, in the sap of some plants as an elastic hydrocarbon polymer It can also be synthesized. Rubbers elastic behavior is caused by bond distortions. When force is applied, bond lengths deviate from the (minimum energy) equilibrium and strain energy is stored electrostatically. In its relaxed state, rubber consists of long, coiled-up polymer chains that are interlinked. Between a pair of chain links, each monomer can rotate freely. giving each section freedom to assume a large number of geometries. Rubber strain energy is stored thermally, as well as electrostatically. Glass Glass is often extended to all amorphous solids (and melts that easily form amorphous solids), including plastics, resins, or other silica-free amorphous solids. Pure silica (SiO2) has a "glass melting point" of over 2300 °C (4200 °F). While pure silica can be made into glass for special applications (see fused quartz), other substances are added to common glass to simplify processing. In general it refers to a hard, brittle, transparent solid materials used in packaging, storage, drinking vessels. The optical and physical properties of glass make it ideal for applications such as flat glass, container glass, glasses, cameras, microscopes, telescopes optics and optoelectronics applications (fiber optics), laboratory equipment, electronics manufacturing (PCB's), integrated circuits, thermal insulator (glass wool), reinforcement fiber (glass-reinforced plastic, glass fiber reinforced concrete), and decorative art. such as stained glass windows or vases. Commonly used for windows (architectural glazing), bottles, or eyewear, including soda-lime glass, acrylic glass, sugar glass, isinglass (Muscovy-glass), or aluminium oxynitride. Paper Paper making has been around for centuries. Paper is manufactured thin sheet, material, known for its high strength to weight ratio. Typically produced from pulpwood trees or vegetable fibers from cotton, hemp, linen, and rice, produced by the amalgamation of the pulp fibers, composed of cellulose fused together by hydrogen bonding. Fiber orientation and the addition of a wide variety of synthetic fibers, such as polypropylene( PP) and polyethylene (PE) help to improve physical properties. Paper is used in a wide variety of product applications for writing surfaces to printing to packaging. Card board, paperboard, paper stock, tag board or card stock is a pulp based, thick paper board material, usually over ten mils (0.010 inch, or 0.25 mm) in thickness, used as a corrugated sheet in the construction of corrugated fiberboard (cardboard) fluted sandwich sheet with;1, 2 - 4 layered linerboards. Paperboard are commonly used for folding cartons, set-up boxes, tag card packaging and widely used in the manufacture of corrugated boxes and shipping containers. Stone Stone and rocks are classified by mineral and chemical composition, by the texture of the constituent particles and by the processes that formed them. These indicators separate rocks into igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic. They may also be classified according to particle size, in the case of conglomerates and breccias or in the case of individual stones. The transformation of one rock type to another is described by the geological model called the rock cycle.
Igneous rocks are formed
when molten magma cools and are divided into two main categories:
plutonic rock and volcanic. Plutonic or intrusive rocks result when
magma cools and crystallizes slowly within the Earth's crust (example
granite), while volcanic or extrusive rocks result from magma reaching
the surface either as lava or fragmental ejecta (examples pumice and
basalt).
Sedimentary rocks are
formed by deposition of either clastic sediments, organic matter, or
chemical precipitates (evaporites), followed by compaction of the
particulate matter and cementation during diagenesis. Sedimentary rocks
form at or near the Earth's surface. Mud rocks comprise 65% (mudstone,
shale and siltstone); sandstones 20 to 25% and carbonate rocks 10 to 15%
(limestone and dolostone).
Chalk is a soft, white, porous sedimentary rock, a form of limestone
composed of the mineral calcite. It forms under relatively deep marine
conditions from the gradual accumulation of minute calcite plates
(coccoliths) shed from micro-organisms called coccolithophores.
Diabase (Imperial black),
Diorite (Whistler white),
Flint (or flintstone) is a hard, sedimentary crystalline form of the
mineral quartz, categorized as a variety of chert. Flint is
usually dark-grey, black, or deep brown in color and a dull shine
appearance. Common chert (sometimes referred to simply as "chert")
normally occurs in limestone.
Marble
Marble is a nonfoliated metamorphic rock resulting from
the metamorphism of limestone, composed mostly of calcite (a crystalline
form of calcium carbonate, CaCO3). It is a relatively
soft rock used
Travertine Travertine is a sedimentary rock was mined by the Romans deriving its name from Tivoli Italy, near Rome, known as Tibur in ancient times. It is a natural chemical precipitate of carbonate minerals; typically Aragonite, but often recrystallized to or primarily Calcite. Travertine is exceptionally porous and fine travertine is white, but often includes streaking, patching, vein and grain textures resulting from impurities and other carbonate minerals in the material resulting in a cream, light brown to yellow color. Onyx is a "Cryptocrystalline" a form of quartz. Pure black is most common but also with bands of color ranging from white to almost every color (save some shades, such as Purple or Blue.) Commonly, specimens of onyx available contain bands of colors of white, tan, and brown. Sardonyx is a variant in which the colored bands are sard (shades of red) rather than black., and perhaps the most famous variety, but not as common as Onyx with banded colors.
Below is a table of the general commodity wood type and relative hardness and cost:
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
